Why This Matters

• 75-80% Pilot error = all aviation accidents
  This isn't about bad pilots. It's about systems. Humans are predictable in certain ways.
• RPAs are no different
  Drone pilots face same cognitive limitations. You're looking at a screen, not out a windshield.
• Human factors training reduces risk
  Not by making you superhuman. By making you aware of your limits.
• Your brain is both your best tool and biggest liability
  Same brain that got you here can also kill you. Know which mode it's in.

Learning Objectives (TP15263)

By the end of this session, you will be able to:

• Describe visual scanning techniques for collision avoidance
• Explain factors affecting pilot alertness & decision-making
• Identify signs of fatigue, stress, and impairment
• Apply the Swiss Cheese Model to accident analysis
• Recognize automation complacency risks

The Visual System

Key factors affecting visual performance:

• Visual acuity (20/20 normal, contrast matters)
  A drone against grey sky is hard to see
• Accommodation & convergence (eye focus adjustments)
  Eyes adjust from controller screen to sky (~1-2 seconds)
• Light/dark adaptation (takes longer dark→light)
  Flying into shadow/cloud = compromised vision
• Empty space myopia (focuses at 1m in empty sky)
  Solution: Actively focus at distance, use horizon/clouds as reference

Visual Scanning Techniques

Effective collision avoidance scanning:

• Series of regularly spaced eye movements
  Methodical beats frantic
• Focus for at least 1 second on each block area
  Minimum time for brain to register detail
• Systematic pattern: outer edge → aircraft → outer edge → aircraft → controller
  Fixed pattern prevents missing areas. Pilots with IFR training will be familiar with this - this is your RPAS T-scan.
• For VOs: scan in strips, pause at each fixation
• ⚠ Perspective illusion: Distant aircraft appear slower/smaller than reality
  That Cessna 2 miles out? It's doing 120mph. Looks like it's crawling.

Orientation & Disorientation

Common illusion scenarios:

• Sloping terrain (looks different than it is)
• Lighting intensity changes (clouds, sun position)
• Lack of surface texture (water, snow, empty fields)
  No reference points = can't judge altitude or movement
• Approach path confusion

Body Rhythms & Fatigue

• Controlled by light/dark, meals, activity
  Your body has a clock. Fighting it = fighting biology
• Disruption = degraded performance
  Shift work, jet lag, all-nighters = same impairment as being drunk

Jet lag effects:

• Slowed reaction time 24hr awake = 0.10% BAC
• Decision-making impairment
• Memory issues
• Accepting lower performance standards

Sleep Deprivation

Rules (CAR 901.19):

• 12 hours - No flying within 12 hours of consuming alcohol
• No flying while fatigued
• No flying while impaired by medications

Medications & Substances

• Over-the-counter: antihistamines, analgesics
  First-gen antihistamines (Benadryl) = strong sedation
• Prescription: check with medical examiner
• Even "safe" drugs can have residual effects
  Half-life matters. Took at 10pm? Still in you at 6am
• The 5x Half-Life Rule:
  Look up medication's half-life → multiply by 5 = wait time
• Example: 8hr half-life × 5 = 40 hours
• Long-term use = builds up, may need longer

Alcohol

• Slows everything: reflexes, judgment, vision
  Depressant of nervous system affects all cognitive functions
• Disrupts sleep patterns (hangover effect)
  Sleep drunk is still drunk
• 12 hours - rule is MINIMUM
  Some need 24. Know your body
• Removed at fixed rate - can't be sped up
  Strong coffee doesn't help. Time is the only cure

Aviation Psychology

Factors affecting decision-making:

• Stress (acute vs chronic)
  Acute = "there's a plane" (focuses). Chronic = "bills, life" (distracts)
• Workload management
  Too much = overwhelmed. Too little = bored. Both dangerous
• Situational awareness
  Knowing what's around you, where you are, what's coming
• Attitude (overconfidence, complacency)
  "I've done this 100 times" = dangerous phrase

Situational Awareness

Automation Complacency

Risks:

• Skills atrophy (lost manual flying ability)
  If automation fails, can you fly manually?
• Reduced vigilance ("It's watching, so I don't have to")
• Mode confusion (What mode is it in? What will it do next?)
• Automation surprises ("Why did it do THAT?")

The Swiss Cheese Model

James Reason's accident causation model

Four layers of defense (each layer should stop the accident):

• 1. Organizational - Policies, culture, resources
  HQ decisions, training programs, funding
• 2. Supervision - Training, mentoring, oversight
  Did someone check your work?
• 3. Preconditions - Fatigue, equipment, crew state
  What's your condition?
• 4. Unsafe Acts - Errors, violations, mistakes
  The actual mistake

Swiss Cheese Model

When holes align across all layers → accident penetrates all defenses

HFACS Framework

Human Factors Analysis & Classification System

Expands Swiss Cheese into:

• Organizational Influences
  Management, policies, culture, resource allocation
• Unsafe Supervision
  Inadequate supervision, planned inappropriate operations
• Preconditions for Unsafe Acts
  Personal factors (fatigue, stress), environmental factors
• Unsafe Acts (errors/violations)
  Skill-based errors, decision errors, routine violations

Case Study - TSB A21O0069

August 10, 2021

• York Regional Police DJI Matrice M210
  Professional unit, not hobbyists
• Cessna 172 on final to CYKZ
  Landing traffic
• RPA hovering at 400ft AGL
  Below cloud, in approach path
• COLLISION - no injuries
  Lucky. Could have been fatalities

Case Analysis - What Happened?

Timeline:

• 1256: RPA begins 2nd flight, hovers at 400ft
  "Just a hover" = dangerous assumption
• 1257: Cessna joins right downwind Runway 15
  Aircraft joining = traffic pattern
• 1301: Collision at 1.2NM from threshold
  5 minutes later. Lots of time to see it

The pilot was:

• Watching video feed (not airspace)
  GCS screen = his back to the sky
• Had ADS-B receiver but Cessna had no ADS-B
  Technology failed. Doesn't replace looking
• No dedicated spotter assigned
  Second set of eyes could have seen it

Apply Swiss Cheese

Discussion

Questions for the class:

• Which layer had the most critical failure?
• What could have prevented this?
• How does this apply to CASARA operations?

The 12 Core Human Factors

Exercise - Scenario Analysis

Apply Swiss Cheese - identify failures in each layer:

• Organizational: No clear search area, changing demands
• Supervision: No one saying "stop, we're done"
• Preconditions: Fatigue (3rd battery), hunger, weather
• Unsafe Acts: Continuing when you should have landed

Key Takeaways

• 1. Pilot error is #1 cause - understand why
  It's not about bad pilots. It's about systems
• 2. Fatigue kills - know your limits
  If you have to ask, you shouldn't fly
• 3. Automation is a tool - do not trust blindly
  Can fail. Can be misunderstood. You're still pilot
• 4. SOPs exist - they are written in blood
  Someone died so that rule exists
• 5. Swiss Cheese works - use it for analysis
  Not just for accidents - use for pre-flight "what could go wrong"
• 6. You are the last line of defense
  Everyone else can fail. You're there at the end

Resources

• TP15263 Section 3 - Human Factors (Transport Canada)
  Your syllabus
• CAR 901.19 - Personnel Licensing & Operations
  The rules
• TSB A21O0069 - Buttonville Collision Report
  Read it. It's public.
• CASARA Spotters Guide
  Your visual scanning reference
• HFACS Framework (Scott Shappell)
  The academic stuff behind Swiss Cheese